Transhumanism and Theological Ethics: An Investigation of Insights to be Gained from Past Developments in Chemical Therapeutics

Transhumanism is concerned with developing human life beyond its current form and limitations using biomedical technologies. The purpose of this project is to make a theological and ethical assessment of proposed transhumanist enhancement technologies, in the light of developments in chemical therapeutics that have already taken place, during the so-called “therapeutic revolution” years of the twentieth century (1950-1990). The key research question that will be addressed is: what can be learned from theological and ethical engagement with past therapeutic developments, and how does this learning inform an evaluation of proposed future transhumanist biomedical technologies within Christian theological ethics? In this project, a case study methodology is used to examine two areas of past therapeutic development, the contraceptive pill and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) antidepressants. The historical context and theological implications of these therapeutic developments are explored, and they are assessed against standard criteria for transhumanist developments. The findings from the case studies are then applied to proposed future transhumanist technologies, to determine how past experiences of therapeutic developments might inform ethical evaluation of future proposals in transhumanist technologies, and how issues with previous therapeutic developments might be reconsidered in the light of this evaluation. The thesis will be structured as follows: a) introduction and development of the research question, discussion of the methodology used and the assumptions made, b) description of transhumanist objectives and technologies and a theological and ethical critique of these, in order to develop theologically-informed criteria of what constitutes a transhumanist technology, c) presentation of two case studies of previous therapeutic developments (the contraceptive pill and SSRI anti-depressants) and evaluation of these cases against the criteria for transhumanist technologies, d) discussion of these findings, and their implications for a revised ethical understanding of future transhumanist technologies

Nurse prescribing of medicines in Western European and Anglo-Saxon countries: a systematic review of the literature

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>A growing number of countries are introducing some form of nurse prescribing. However, international reviews concerning nurse prescribing are scarce and lack a systematic and theoretical approach. The aim of this review was twofold: firstly, to gain insight into the scientific and professional literature describing the extent to and the ways in which nurse prescribing has been realised or is being introduced in Western European and Anglo-Saxon countries; secondly, to identify possible mechanisms underlying the introduction and organisation of nurse prescribing on the basis of Abbott's theory on the division of professional labor.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>A comprehensive search of six literature databases and seven websites was performed without any limitation as to date of publication, language or country. Additionally, experts in the field of nurse prescribing were consulted. A three stage inclusion process, consisting of initial sifting, more detailed selection and checking full-text publications, was performed independently by pairs of reviewers. Data were synthesized using narrative and tabular methods.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>One hundred and twenty-four publications met the inclusion criteria. So far, seven Western European and Anglo-Saxon countries have implemented nurse prescribing of medicines, viz., Australia, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, Sweden, the UK and the USA. The Netherlands and Spain are in the process of introducing nurse prescribing. A diversity of external and internal forces has led to the introduction of nurse prescribing internationally. The legal, educational and organizational conditions under which nurses prescribe medicines vary considerably between countries; from situations where nurses prescribe independently to situations in which prescribing by nurses is only allowed under strict conditions and supervision of physicians.</p> <p>Conclusions</p> <p>Differences between countries are reflected in the jurisdictional settlements between the nursing and medical professions concerning prescribing. In some countries, nurses share (full) jurisdiction with the medical profession, whereas in other countries nurses prescribe in a subordinate position. In most countries the jurisdiction over prescribing remains predominantly with the medical profession. There seems to be a mechanism linking the jurisdictional settlements between professions with the forces that led to the introduction of nurse prescribing. Forces focussing on efficiency appear to lead to more extensive prescribing rights.</p